The NEAR Protocol Specification

Near Protocol is the scalable blockchain protocol.

For the overview of the NEAR Protocol, read the following documents in numerical order.

  1. Terminology
  2. Data structures
  3. Architecture
  4. Chain specification
  5. Runtime specification
  6. Economics

Terminology

Abstraction definitions

Chain

A chain is a replication machinery, that provides for any type of state a way to replicate across the network and reach consensus on the state.

Primitives

Accounts

Account ID

NEAR Protocol has an account names system. Account ID is similar to a username. Account IDs have to follow the rules.

Account ID Rules

  • minimum length is 2
  • maximum length is 64
  • Account ID consists of Account ID parts separated by .
  • Account ID part consists of lowercase alphanumeric symbols separated by either _ or -.

Account names are similar to a domain names. Anyone can create a top level account (TLA) without separators, e.g. near. Only near can create alice.near. And only alice.near can create app.alice.near and so on. Note, near can NOT create app.alice.near directly.

Regex for a full account ID, without checking for length:

^(([a-z\d]+[\-_])*[a-z\d]+\.)*([a-z\d]+[\-_])*[a-z\d]+$

There is a rent for the account ID length in case it's less than 11 characters long. See [Economics] for the details.

Examples

Valid accounts:

ok
bowen
ek-2
ek.near
com
google.com
bowen.google.com
near
illia.cheap-accounts.near
max_99.near
100
near2019
over.9000
a.bro
// Valid, but can't be created, because "a" is too short
bro.a

Invalid accounts:

not ok           // Whitespace characters are not allowed
a                // Too short
100-             // Suffix separator
bo__wen          // Two separators in a row
_illia           // Prefix separator
.near            // Prefix dot separator
near.            // Suffix dot separator
a..near          // Two dot separators in a row
$$$              // Non alphanumeric characters are not allowed
WAT              // Non lowercase characters are not allowed
me@google.com    // @ is not allowed (it was allowed in the past)
// TOO LONG:
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Account

Data for an single account is collocated in one shard. The account data consists of the following:

Balances

Total account balance consists of unlocked balance and locked balance.

Unlocked balance is tokens that the account can use for transaction fees, transfers staking and other operations.

Locked balance is the tokens that are currently in use for staking to be a validator or to become a validator. Locked balance may become unlocked at the beginning of an epoch. See [Staking] for details.

Contracts

A contract (AKA smart contract) is a program in WebAssembly that belongs to a specific account. When account is created, it doesn't have a contract. A contract has to be explicitly deployed, either by the account owner, or during the account creation. A contract can be executed by anyone who calls a method on your account. A contract has access to the storage on your account.

Storage

Every account has its own storage. It's a persistent key-value trie. Keys are ordered in lexicographical order. The storage can only be modified by the contract on the account. Current implementation on Runtime only allows your account's contract to read from the storage, but this might change in the future and other accounts's contracts will be able to read from your storage.

NOTE: Accounts are charged recurrent rent for the total storage. This includes storage of the account itself, contract code, contract storage and all access keys.

Access Keys

An access key grants an access to a account. Each access key on the account is identified by a unique public key. This public key is used to validate signature of transactions. Each access key contains a unique nonce to differentiate or order transactions signed with this access key.

An access keys have a permission associated with it. The permission can be one of two types:

  • Full permission. It grants full access to the account.
  • Function call permission. It grants access to only issue function call transactions.

See [Access Keys] for more details.

Access Keys

Access key provides an access for a particular account. Each access key belongs to some account and is identified by a unique (within the account) public key. Access keys are stored as account_id,public_key in a trie state. Account can have from zero to multiple access keys.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct AccessKey {
    /// The nonce for this access key.
    /// NOTE: In some cases the access key needs to be recreated. If the new access key reuses the
    /// same public key, the nonce of the new access key should be equal to the nonce of the old
    /// access key. It's required to avoid replaying old transactions again.
    pub nonce: Nonce,
    /// Defines permissions for this access key.
    pub permission: AccessKeyPermission,
}
}

There are 2 types of AccessKeyPermission in Near currently: FullAccess and FunctionCall. FunctionCall grants a permission to issue any action on account like DeployContract, Transfer tokens to other account, call functions FunctionCall, Stake and even delete account DeleteAccountAction. FullAccess also allow to manage access keys. AccessKeyPermission::FunctionCall limits to do only contract calls.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub enum AccessKeyPermission {
    FunctionCall(FunctionCallPermission),
    FullAccess,
}
}

AccessKeyPermission::FunctionCall

Grants limited permission to make FunctionCall to a specified receiver_id and methods of a particular contract with a limit of allowed balance to spend.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct FunctionCallPermission {
    /// Allowance is a balance limit to use by this access key to pay for function call gas and
    /// transaction fees. When this access key is used, both account balance and the allowance is
    /// decreased by the same value.
    /// `None` means unlimited allowance.
    /// NOTE: To change or increase the allowance, the old access key needs to be deleted and a new
    /// access key should be created.
    pub allowance: Option<Balance>,

    /// The access key only allows transactions with the given receiver's account id.
    pub receiver_id: AccountId,

    /// A list of method names that can be used. The access key only allows transactions with the
    /// function call of one of the given method names.
    /// Empty list means any method name can be used.
    pub method_names: Vec<String>,
}
}

Account without access keys

If account has no access keys attached it means that it has no owner who can run transactions from its behalf. However, if such accounts has code it can be invoked by other accounts and contracts.

Transaction

Architecture

Near node consists roughly of a blockchain layer and a runtime layer. These layers are designed to be independent from each other: the blockchain layer can in theory support runtime that processes transactions differently, has a different virtual machine (e.g. RISC-V), has different fees; on the other hand the runtime is oblivious to where the transactions are coming from. It is not aware whether the blockchain it runs on is sharded, what consensus it uses, and whether it runs as part of a blockchain at all.

The blockchain layer and the runtime layer share the following components and invariants:

Transactions and Receipts

Transactions and receipts are a fundamental concept in Near Protocol. Transactions represent actions requested by the blockchain user, e.g. send assets, create account, execute a method, etc. Receipts, on the other hand is an internal structure; think of a receipt as a message which is used inside a message-passing system.

Transactions are created outside the Near Protocol node, by the user who sends them via RPC or network communication. Receipts are created by the runtime from transactions or as the result of processing other receipts.

Blockchain layer cannot create or process transactions and receipts, it can only manipulate them by passing them around and feeding them to a runtime.

Account-Based System

Similar to Ethereum, Near Protocol is an account-based system. Which means that each blockchain user is roughly associated with one or several accounts (there are exceptions though, when users share an account and are separated through the access keys).

The runtime is essentially a complex set of rules on what to do with accounts based on the information from the transactions and the receipts. It is therefore deeply aware of the concept of account.

Blockchain layer however is mostly aware of the accounts through the trie (see below) and the validators (see below). Outside these two it does not operate on the accounts directly.

Assume every account belongs to its own shard

Every account at NEAR belongs to some shard. All the information related to this account also belongs to the same shard. The information includes:

  • Balance
  • Locked balance (for staking)
  • Code of the contract
  • Key-value storage of the contract
  • All Access Keys

Runtime assumes, it's the only information that is available for the contract execution. While other accounts may belong to the same shards, the Runtime never uses or provides them during contract execution. We can just assume that every account belongs to its own shard. So there is no reason to intentionally try to collocate accounts.

Trie

Near Protocol is a stateful blockchain -- there is a state associated with each account and the user actions performed through transactions mutate that state. The state then is stored as a trie, and both the blockchain layer and the runtime layer are aware of this technical detail.

The blockchain layer manipulates the trie directly. It partitions the trie between the shards to distribute the load. It synchronizes the trie between the nodes, and eventually it is responsible for maintaining the consistency of the trie between the nodes through its consensus mechanism and other game-theoretic methods.

The runtime layer is also aware that the storage that it uses to perform the operations on is a trie. In general it does not have to know this technical detail and in theory we could have abstracted out the trie as a generic key-value storage. However, we allow some trie-specific operations that we expose to the smart contract developers so that they utilize Near Protocol to its maximum efficiency.

Tokens and gas

Even though tokens is a fundamental concept of the blockchain, it is neatly encapsulated inside the runtime layer together with the gas, fees, and rewards.

The only way the blockchain layer is aware of the tokens and the gas is through the computation of the exchange rate and the inflation which is based strictly on the block production mechanics.

Validators

Both the blockchain layer and the runtime layer are aware of a special group of participants who are responsible for maintaining the integrity of the Near Protocol. These participants are associated with the accounts and are rewarded accordingly. The reward part is what the runtime layer is aware of, while everything around the orchestration of the validators is inside the blockchain layer.

Blockchain Layer Concepts

Interestingly, the following concepts are for the blockchain layer only and the runtime layer is not aware of them:

  • Sharding -- the runtime layer does not know that it is being used in a sharded blockchain, e.g. it does not know that the trie it works on is only a part of the overall blockchain state;
  • Blocks or chunks -- the runtime does not know that the receipts that it processes constitute a chunk and that the output receipts will be used in other chunks. From the runtime perspective it consumes and outputs batches of transactions and receipts;
  • Consensus -- the runtime does not know how consistency of the state is maintained;
  • Communication -- the runtime don't know anything about the current network topology. Receipt has only a receiver_id (a recipient account), but knows nothing about the destination shard, so it's a responsibility of a blockchain layer to route a particular receipt.

Runtime Layer Concepts

  • Fees and rewards -- fees and rewards are neatly encapsulated in the runtime layer. The blockchain layer, however has an indirect knowledge of them through the computation of the tokens-to-gas exchange rate and the inflation.

Chain Specification

TBD

Transactions in the Blockchain Layer

A client creates a transaction, computes the transaction hash and signs this hash to get a signed transaction. Now this signed transaction can be sent to a node.

When a node receives a new signed transaction, it validates the transaction (if the node tracks the shard) and gossips it to the peers. Eventually, the valid transaction is added to a transaction pool.

Every validating node has its own transaction pool. The transaction pool maintains transactions that were not yet discarded and not yet included into the chain.

Before producing a chunk transactions are ordered and validated again. This is done to produce chunks with only valid transactions.

Transaction ordering

The transaction pool groups transactions by a pair of (signer_id, signer_public_key). The signer_id is the account ID of the user who signed the transaction, the signer_public_key is the public key of the account's access key that was used to sign the transactions. Transactions within a group are not ordered.

The valid order of the transactions in a chunk is the following:

  • transactions are ordered in batches.
  • within a batch all transactions keys should have different.
  • a set of transaction keys in each subsequent batch should be a sub-set of keys from the previous batch.
  • transactions with the same key should be ordered in strictly increasing order of their corresponding nonces.

Note:

  • the order within a batch is undefined. Each node should use a unique secret seed for that ordering to users from finding the lowest keys to get advantage of every node.

Transaction pool provides a draining structure that allows to pull transactions in a proper order.

Transaction validation

The transaction validation happens twice, once before adding to the transaction pool, next before adding to a chunk.

Before adding to a transaction pool

This is done to quickly filter out transactions that have an invalid signature or are invalid on the latest state.

Before adding to a chunk

A chunk producer has to create a chunk with valid and ordered transactions up to some limits. One limit is the maximum number of transactions, another is the total gas burnt for transactions.

To order and filter transactions, chunk producer gets a pool iterator and passes it to the runtime adapter. The runtime adapter pulls transactions one by one. The valid transactions are added to the result, invalid transactions are discarded. Once the limit is reached, all the remaining transactions from the iterator are returned back to the pool.

Pool iterator

Pool Iterator is a trait that iterates over transaction groups until all transaction group are empty. Pool Iterator returns a mutable reference to a transaction group that implements a draining iterator. The draining iterator is like a normal iterator, but it removes the returned entity from the group. It pulls transactions from the group in order from the smallest nonce to largest.

The pool iterator and draining iterators for transaction groups allow the runtime adapter to create proper order. For every transaction group, the runtime adapter keeps pulling transactions until the valid transaction is found. If the transaction group becomes empty, then it's skipped.

The runtime adapter may implement the following code to pull all valid transactions:


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
let mut valid_transactions = vec![];
let mut pool_iter = pool.pool_iterator();
while let Some(group_iter) = pool_iter.next() {
    while let Some(tx) = group_iter.next() {
        if is_valid(tx) {
            valid_transactions.push(tx);
            break;
        }
    }
}
valid_transactions
}

Transaction ordering example using pool iterator.

Let's say:

  • account IDs as uppercase letters ("A", "B", "C" ...)
  • public keys are lowercase letters ("a", "b", "c" ...)
  • nonces are numbers (1, 2, 3 ...)

A pool might have group of transactions in the hashmap:

transactions: {
  ("A", "a") -> [1, 3, 2, 1, 2]
  ("B", "b") -> [13, 14]
  ("C", "d") -> [7]
  ("A", "c") -> [5, 2, 3]
}

There are 3 accounts ("A", "B", "C"). Account "A" used 2 public keys ("a", "c"). Other accounts used 1 public key each. Transactions within each group may have repeated nonces while in the pool. That's because the pool doesn't filter transactions with the same nonce, only transactions with the same hash.

For this example, let's say that transactions are valid if the nonce is even and strictly greater than the previous nonce for the same key.

Initialization

When .pool_iterator() is called, a new PoolIteratorWrapper is created and it holds the mutuable reference to the pool, so the pool can't be modified outside of this iterator. The wrapper looks like this:

pool: {
    transactions: {
      ("A", "a") -> [1, 3, 2, 1, 2]
      ("B", "b") -> [13, 14]
      ("C", "d") -> [7]
      ("A", "c") -> [5, 2, 3]
    }
}
sorted_groups: [],

sorted_groups is a queue of sorted transaction groups that were already sorted and pulled from the pool.

Transaction #1

The first group to be selected is for key ("A", "a"), the pool iterator sorts transactions by nonces and returns the mutable references to the group. Sorted nonces are: [1, 1, 2, 2, 3]. Runtime adapter pulls 1, then 1, and then 2. Both transactions with nonce 1 are invalid because of odd nonce.

Transaction with nonce 2 is added to the list of valid transactions.

The transaction group is dropped and the pool iterator wrapper becomes the following:

pool: {
    transactions: {
      ("B", "b") -> [13, 14]
      ("C", "d") -> [7]
      ("A", "c") -> [5, 2, 3]
    }
}
sorted_groups: [
  ("A", "a") -> [2, 3]
],
Transaction #2

The next group is for key ("B", "b"), the pool iterator sorts transactions by nonces and returns the mutable references to the group. Sorted nonces are: [13, 14]. Runtime adapter pulls 13, then 14. The transaction with nonce 13 is invalid because of odd nonce.

Transaction with nonce 14 is added to the list of valid transactions.

The transaction group is dropped, but it's empty, so the pool iterator drops it completely:

pool: {
    transactions: {
      ("C", "d") -> [7]
      ("A", "c") -> [5, 2, 3]
    }
}
sorted_groups: [
  ("A", "a") -> [2, 3]
],
Transaction #3

The next group is for key ("C", "d"), the pool iterator sorts transactions by nonces and returns the mutable references to the group. Sorted nonces are: [7]. Runtime adapter pulls 7. The transaction with nonce 7 is invalid because of odd nonce.

No valid transactions is added for this group.

The transaction group is dropped, it's empty, so the pool iterator drops it completely:

pool: {
    transactions: {
      ("A", "c") -> [5, 2, 3]
    }
}
sorted_groups: [
  ("A", "a") -> [2, 3]
],

The next group is for key ("A", "c"), the pool iterator sorts transactions by nonces and returns the mutable references to the group. Sorted nonces are: [2, 3, 5]. Runtime adapter pulls 2.

It's a valid transaction, so it's added to the list of valid transactions.

The transaction group is dropped, so the pool iterator drops it completely:

pool: {
    transactions: { }
}
sorted_groups: [
  ("A", "a") -> [2, 3]
  ("A", "c") -> [3, 5]
],
Transaction #4

The next group is pulled not from the pool, but from the sorted_groups. The key is ("A", "a"). It's already sorted, so the iterator returns the mutable reference. Nonces are: [2, 3]. Runtime adapter pulls 2, then pulls 3.

The transaction with nonce 2 is invalid, because we've already pulled a transaction #1 from this group and it had nonce 2. The new nonce has to be larger than the previous nonce, so this transaction is invalid.

The transaction with nonce 3 is invalid because of odd nonce.

No valid transactions is added for this group.

The transaction group is dropped, it's empty, so the pool iterator drops it completely:

pool: {
    transactions: { }
}
sorted_groups: [
  ("A", "c") -> [3, 5]
],

The next group is for key ("A", "c"), with nonces [3, 5]. Runtime adapter pulls 3, then pulls 5. Both transactions are invalid, because the nonce is odd.

No transactions are added.

The transaction group is dropped, the pool iterator wrapper becomes empty:

pool: {
    transactions: { }
}
sorted_groups: [ ],

When runtime adapter tries to pull the next group, the pool iterator returns None, so the runtime adapter drops the iterator.

Dropping iterator

If the iterator was not fully drained, but some transactions still remained. They would be reinserted back into the pool.

Chunk Transactions

Transactions that were pulled from the pool:

// First batch
("A", "a", 1),
("A", "a", 1),
("A", "a", 2),
("B", "b", 13),
("B", "b", 14),
("C", "d", 7),
("A", "c", 2),

// Next batch
("A", "a", 2),
("A", "a", 3),
("A", "c", 3),
("A", "c", 5),

The valid transactions are:

("A", "a", 2),
("B", "b", 14),
("A", "c", 2),

In total there were only 3 valid transactions, that resulted in one batch.

Order validation

Other validators need to check the order of transactions in the produced chunk. It can be done in linear time, using a greedy algorithm.

To select a first batch we need to iterate over transactions one by one until we see a transaction with the key that we've already included in the first batch. This transaction belongs to the next batch.

Now all transactions in the N+1 batch should have a corresponding transaction with the same key in the N batch. If there are no transaction with the same key in the N batch, then the order is invalid.

We also enforce the order of the sequence of transactions for the same key, the nonces of them should be in strictly increasing order.

Here is the algorithm that validates the order:


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
fn validate_order(txs: &Vec<Transaction>) -> bool {
    let mut nonces: HashMap<Key, Nonce> = HashMap::new();
    let mut batches: HashMap<Key, usize> = HashMap::new();
    let mut current_batch = 1;

    for tx in txs {
        let key = tx.key();

        // Verifying nonce
        let nonce = tx.nonce();
        if let Some(last_nonce) = nonces.get(key) {
            if nonce <= last_nonce {
                // Nonces should increase.
                return false;
            }
        }
        nonces.insert(key, nonce);

        // Verifying batch
        if let Some(last_batch) = batches.get(key) {
            if last_batch == current_batch {
                current_batch += 1;
            } else if last_batch < current_batch - 1 {
                // Was skipped this key in the previous batch
                return false;
            }
        } else {
            if current_batch > 1 {
                // Not in first batch
                return false;
            }
        }
        batches.insert(key, batch);
    }
    true
}
}

Runtime Specification

Function Call

In this section we provide an explanation how the FunctionCall action execution works, what are the inputs and what are the outputs. Suppose runtime received the following ActionReceipt:


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
ActionReceipt {
     id: "A1",
     signer_id: "alice",
     signer_public_key: "6934...e248",
     receiver_id: "dex",
     predecessor_id: "alice",
     input_data_ids: [],
     output_data_receivers: [],
     actions: [FunctionCall { gas: 100000, deposit: 100000u128, method_name: "exchange", args: "{arg1, arg2, ...}", ... }],
 }
}

input_data_ids to PromiseResult's

ActionReceipt.input_data_ids must be satisfied before execution (see Receipt Matching). Each of ActionReceipt.input_data_ids will be converted to the PromiseResult::Successful(Vec<u8>) if data_id.data is Some(Vec<u8>) otherwise if data_id.data is None promise will be PromiseResult::Failed.

Input

The FunctionCall executes in the receiver_id account environment.

  • a vector of Promise Results which can be accessed by a promise_result import PromisesAPI promise_result)
  • the original Transaction signer_id, signer_public_key data from the ActionReceipt (e.g. method_name, args, predecessor_id, deposit, prepaid_gas (which is gas in FunctionCall))
  • a general blockchain data (e.g. block_index, block_timestamp)
  • read data from the account storage

A full list of the data available for the contract can be found in Context API and Trie

Execution

First of all, runtime does prepare the Wasm binary to be executed:

  • loads the contract code from the receiver_id account storage
  • deserializes and validates the code Wasm binary (see prepare::prepare_contract)
  • injects the gas counting function gas which will charge gas on the beginning of the each code block
  • instantiates Bindings Spec with binary and calls the FunctionCall.method_name exported function

During execution, VM does the following:

  • counts burnt gas on execution
  • counts used gas (which is burnt gas + gas attached to the new created receipts)
  • counts how accounts storage usage increased by the call
  • collects logs produced by the contract
  • sets the return data
  • creates new receipts through PromisesAPI

Output

The output of the FunctionCall:

  • storage updates - changes to the account trie storage which will be applied on a successful call
  • burnt_gas - irreversible amount of gas witch was spent on computations
  • used_gas - includes burnt_gas and gas attached to the new ActionReceipts created during the method execution. In case of failure, created ActionReceipts not going to be sent thus account will pay only for burnt_gas
  • balance - unspent account balance (account balance could be spent on deposits of newly created FunctionCalls or TransferActions to other contracts)
  • storage_usage - storage_usage after ActionReceipt application
  • logs - during contract execution, utf8/16 string log records could be created. Logs are not persistent currently.
  • new_receipts - new ActionReceipts created during the execution. These receipts are going to be sent to the respective receiver_ids (see Receipt Matching explanation)
  • result could be either ReturnData::Value(Vec<u8>) or ReturnData::ReceiptIndex(u64)`

Value Result

If applied ActionReceipt contains output_data_receivers, runtime will create DataReceipt for each of data_id and receiver_id and data equals returned value. Eventually, these DataReceipt will be delivered to the corresponding receivers.

ReceiptIndex Result

Successful result could not return any Value, but generates a bunch of new ActionReceipts instead. One example could be a callback. In this case, we assume the the new Receipt will send its Value Result to the output_data_receivers of the current ActionReceipt.

Transactions

A transaction in Near is a list of actions and additional information:


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct Transaction {
    /// An account on which behalf transaction is signed
    pub signer_id: AccountId,
    /// An access key which was used to sign a transaction
    pub public_key: PublicKey,
    /// Nonce is used to determine order of transaction in the pool.
    /// It increments for a combination of `signer_id` and `public_key`
    pub nonce: Nonce,
    /// Receiver account for this transaction. If
    pub receiver_id: AccountId,
    /// The hash of the block in the blockchain on top of which the given transaction is valid
    pub block_hash: CryptoHash,
    /// A list of actions to be applied
    pub actions: Vec<Action>,
}
}

Signed Transaction

SignedTransaction is what the node receives from a wallet through JSON-RPC endpoint and then routed to the shard where receiver_id account lives. Signature proves an ownership of the corresponding public_key (which is an AccessKey for a particular account) as well as authenticity of the transaction itself.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct SignedTransaction {
    pub transaction: Transaction,
    /// A signature of a hash of the Borsh-serialized Transaction
    pub signature: Signature,
}

Take a look some scenarios how transaction can be applied.

Actions

There are a several action types in Near:


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub enum Action {
    CreateAccount(CreateAccountAction),
    DeployContract(DeployContractAction),
    FunctionCall(FunctionCallAction),
    Transfer(TransferAction),
    Stake(StakeAction),
    AddKey(AddKeyAction),
    DeleteKey(DeleteKeyAction),
    DeleteAccount(DeleteAccountAction),
}
}

Each transaction consists a list of actions to be performed on the receiver_id side. Sometimes the singer_id equals to receiver_id. There is a set of action types when signer_id and receiver_id are required to be equal. Actions requires arguments and use data from the Transaction itself.

// TODO: how to introduce the concept of sender_id

CreateAccountAction

Requirements:

  • unique tx.receiver_id
  • public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id

CreateAccountAction doesn't take any additional arguments, it uses receiver_id from Transaction. receiver_id is an ID for an account to be created. Account ID should be valid and unique throughout the system.

Outcome:

  • creates an account with id = receiver_id
  • sets Account storage_usage to account_cost (genesis config)
  • sets Account storage_paid_at to the current block height

NOTE: for the all subsequent actions in the transaction the signer_id becomes receiver_id until DeleteAccountAction. It allows to execute actions on behalf of the just created account.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct CreateAccountAction {}
}

DeployContractAction

Requirements:

  • tx.signer_id to be equal to receiver_id
  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id

Outcome:

  • sets a code for account

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct DeployContractAction {
    pub code: Vec<u8>, // a valid WebAssembly code
}
}

FunctionCallAction

Requirements:

  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess or AccessKeyPermission::FunctionCall

Calls a method of a particular contract. See details.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct FunctionCallAction {
    /// Name of exported Wasm function
    pub method_name: String,
    /// Serialized arguments
    pub args: Vec<u8>,
    /// Prepaid gas (gas_limit) for a function call
    pub gas: Gas,
    /// Amount of tokens to transfer to a receiver_id
    pub deposit: Balance,
}
}

TransferAction

Requirements:

  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id

Outcome:

  • transfers amount specified in deposit from tx.signer to a tx.receiver_id account

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct TransferAction {
    /// Amount of tokens to transfer to a receiver_id
    pub deposit: Balance,
}
}

StakeAction

Requirements:

  • tx.signer_id to be equal to receiver_id
  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct StakeAction {
    // Amount of tokens to stake
    pub stake: Balance,
    // This public key is a public key of the validator node
    pub public_key: PublicKey,
}
}

Outcome:

// TODO: cover staking

AddKeyAction

Requirements:

  • tx.signer_id to be equal to receiver_id
  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id

Associates an AccessKey with a public_key provided.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct AddKeyAction {
    pub public_key: PublicKey,
    pub access_key: AccessKey,
}
}

DeleteKeyAction

Requirements:

  • tx.signer_id to be equal to receiver_id
  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct DeleteKeyAction {
    pub public_key: PublicKey,
}
}

DeleteAccountAction

Requirements:

  • tx.signer_id to be equal to receiver_id
  • tx.public_key to be AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess for the singer_id
  • tx.account shouldn't have any locked balance

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
pub struct DeleteAccountAction {
    /// The remaining account balance will be transferred to the AccountId below
    pub beneficiary_id: AccountId,
}
}

Receipt

All cross-contract (we assume that each account lives in it's own shard) communication in Near happens trough Receipts. Receipts are stateful in a sense that they serve not only as messages between accounts but also can be stored in the account storage to await DataReceipts.

Each receipt has a predecessor_id (who sent it) and receiver_id the current account.

Receipts are one of 2 types: action receipts or data receipts.

Data Receipts are receipts that contains some data for some ActionReceipt with the same receiver_id. Data Receipts has 2 fields: the unique data identifier data_id and data the received result. data is an Option field and it indicates whether the result was a success or a failure. If it's Some, then it means the remote execution was successful and it contains the vector of bytes of the result.

Each ActionReceipt also contains fields related to data:

  • input_data_ids - a vector of input data with the data_ids required for the execution of this receipt.
  • output_data_receivers - a vector of output data receivers. It indicates where to send outgoing data. Each DataReceiver consists of data_id and receiver_id for routing.

Before any action receipt is executed, all input data dependencies need to be satisfied. Which means all corresponding data receipts has to be received. If any of the data dependencies is missing, the action receipt is postponed until all missing data dependency arrives.

Because Chain and Runtime guarantees that no receipts are missing, we can rely that every action receipt will be executed eventually (Receipt Matching explanation).

Each Receipt has the following fields:

predecessor_id

  • type: AccountId

The account_id which issued a receipt.

receiver_id

  • type: AccountId

The destination account_id.

receipt_id

  • type: AccountId

An unique id for the receipt.

receipt

There is a 2 types of Receipts in Near: ActionReceipt and DataReceipt. ActionReceipt is a request to apply Actions, while DataReceipt is a result of application of these actions.

ActionReceipt

ActionReceipt represents a request to apply actions on the receiver_id side. It could be a derived as a result of a Transaction execution or a another ActionReceipt processing. ActionReceipt consists the following fields:

signer_id

  • type: AccountId

An account_id which signed the original transaction.

signer_public_key

  • type: PublicKey

An AccessKey which was used to sign the original transaction.

gas_price

  • type: u128

Gas price is a gas price which was set in a block where original transaction has been applied.

output_data_receivers

  • type: [DataReceiver{ data_id: CryptoHash, receiver_id: AccountId }]

If smart contract finishes its execution with some value (not Promise), runtime creates a [DataReceipt]s for each of the output_data_receivers.

input_data_ids

  • type: [CryptoHash]_

input_data_ids are the receipt data dependencies. input_data_ids correspond to DataReceipt.data_id.

actions

DataReceipt

DataReceipt represents a final result of some contract execution.

data_id

  • type: CryptoHash

An a unique DataReceipt identifier.

data

  • type: Option([u8])

An an associated data in bytes. None indicates an error during execution.

Creating Receipt

Receipts can be generated during the execution of the SignedTransaction (see example) or during application of some ActionReceipt which contains FunctionCall action. The result of the FunctionCall could either

Receipt Matching

Runtime doesn't expect that Receipts are coming in a particular order. Each Receipt is processed individually. The goal of the Receipt Matching process is to match all ActionReceipts to the corresponding DataReceipts.

Processing ActionReceipt

For each incoming ActionReceipt runtime checks whether we have all the DataReceipts (defined as ActionsReceipt.input_data_ids) required for execution. If all the required DataReceipts are already in the storage, runtime can apply this ActionReceipt immediately. Otherwise we save this receipt as a Postponed ActionReceipt. Also we save Pending DataReceipts Count and a link from pending DataReceipt to the Postponed ActionReceipt. Now runtime will wait all the missing DataReceipts to apply the Postponed ActionReceipt.

Postponed ActionReceipt

A Receipt which runtime stores until all the designated DataReceipts arrive.

  • key = account_id,receipt_id
  • value = [u8]

Where account_id is Receipt.receiver_id, receipt_id is Receipt.receiver_id and value is a serialized Receipt (which type must be ActionReceipt).

Pending DataReceipt Count

A counter which counts pending DataReceipts for a Postponed Receipt initially set to the length of missing input_data_ids of the incoming ActionReceipt. It's decrementing with every new received DataReceipt:

  • key = account_id,receipt_id
  • value = u32

Where account_id is AccountId, receipt_id is CryptoHash and value is an integer.

Pending DataReceipt for Postponed ActionReceipt

We index each pending DataReceipt so when a new DataReceipt arrives we can find to which Postponed Receipt it belongs.

  • key = account_id,data_id
  • value = receipt_id

Processing DataReceipt

Received DataReceipt

First of all, runtime saves the incoming DataReceipt to the storage as:

  • key = account_id,data_id
  • value = [u8]

Where account_id is Receipt.receiver_id, data_id is DataReceipt.data_id and value is a DataReceipt.data (which is typically a serialized result of the call to a particular contract).

Next, runtime checks if there is any Postponed ActionReceipt awaits for this DataReceipt by querying Pending DataReceipt to the Postponed Receipt. If there is no postponed receipt_id yet, we do nothing else. If there is a postponed receipt_id, we do the following:

If Pending DataReceipt Count is now 0 that means all the Receipt.input_data_ids are in storage and runtime can safely apply the Postponed Receipt and remove it from the store.

Case 1: Call to multiple contracts and await responses

Suppose runtime got the following ActionReceipt:

# Non-relevant fields are omitted.
Receipt{
    receiver_id: "alice",
    receipt_id: "693406"
    receipt: ActionReceipt {
        input_data_ids: []
    }
}

If execution return Result::Value

Suppose runtime got the following ActionReceipt (we use a python-like pseudo code):

# Non-relevant fields are omitted.
Receipt{
    receiver_id: "alice",
    receipt_id: "5e73d4"
    receipt: ActionReceipt {
        input_data_ids: ["e5fa44", "7448d8"]
    }
}

We can't apply this receipt right away: there are missing DataReceipt'a with IDs: ["e5fa44", "7448d8"]. Runtime does the following:

postponed_receipts["alice,5e73d4"] = borsh_serialize(
    Receipt{
        receiver_id: "alice",
        receipt_id: "5e73d4"
        receipt: ActionReceipt {
            input_data_ids: ["e5fa44", "7448d8"]
        }
    }
)
pending_data_receipt_store["alice,e5fa44"] = "5e73d4"
pending_data_receipt_store["alice,7448d8"] = "5e73d4"
pending_data_receipt_count = 2

Note: the subsequent Receipts could arrived in the current block or next, that's why we save Postponed ActionReceipt in the storage

Then the first pending Pending DataReceipt arrives:

# Non-relevant fields are omitted.
Receipt {
    receiver_id: "alice",
    receipt: DataReceipt {
        data_id: "e5fa44",
        data: "some data for alice",
    }
}

data_receipts["alice,e5fa44"] = borsh_serialize(Receipt{
    receiver_id: "alice",
    receipt: DataReceipt {
        data_id: "e5fa44",
        data: "some data for alice",
    }
};
pending_data_receipt_count["alice,5e73d4"] = 1`
del pending_data_receipt_store["alice,e5fa44"]

And finally the last Pending DataReceipt arrives:

# Non-relevant fields are omitted.
Receipt{
    receiver_id: "alice",
    receipt: DataReceipt {
        data_id: "7448d8",
        data: "some more data for alice",
    }
}

data_receipts["alice,7448d8"] = borsh_serialize(Receipt{
    receiver_id: "alice",
    receipt: DataReceipt {
        data_id: "7448d8",
        data: "some more data for alice",
    }
};
postponed_receipt_id = pending_data_receipt_store["alice,5e73d4"]
postponed_receipt = postponed_receipts[postponed_receipt_id]
del postponed_receipts[postponed_receipt_id]
del pending_data_receipt_count["alice,5e73d4"]
del pending_data_receipt_store["alice,7448d8"]
apply_receipt(postponed_receipt)

Scenarios

In the following sections we go over the common scenarios that runtime takes care of.

Financial Transaction

Suppose Alice wants to transfer 100 tokens to Bob. In this case we are talking about native Near Protocol tokens, oppose to user-defined tokens implemented through a smart contract. There are several way this can be done:

  • Direct transfer through a transaction containing transfer action;
  • Alice calling a smart contract that in turn creates a financial transaction towards Bob.

In this section we are talking about the former simpler scenario.

Pre-requisites

For this to work both Alice and Bob need to have accounts and an access to them through the full access keys.

Suppose Alice has account alice_near and Bob has account bob_near. Also, some time in the past, each of them has created a public-secret key-pair, saved the secret key somewhere (e.g. in a wallet application) and created a full access key with the public key for the account.

We also need to assume that both Alice and Bob has some number of tokens on their accounts. Alice needs >100 tokens on the account so that she could transfer 100 tokens to Bob, but also Alice and Bob need to have some tokens to pay for the rent of their account -- which is essentially the cost of the storage occupied by the account in the Near Protocol network.

Creating a transaction

To send the transaction neither Alice nor Bob need to run a node. However, Alice needs a way to create and sign a transaction structure. Suppose Alice uses near-shell or any other third-party tool for that. The tool then creates the following structure:

Transaction {
    signer_id: "alice_near",
    public_key: "ed25519:32zVgoqtuyRuDvSMZjWQ774kK36UTwuGRZMmPsS6xpMy",
    nonce: 57,
    receiver_id: "bob_near",
    block_hash: "CjNSmWXTWhC3EhRVtqLhRmWMTkRbU96wUACqxMtV1uGf",
    actions: vec![
        Action::Transfer(TransferAction {deposit: 100} )
    ],
}

Which contains one token transfer action, the id of the account that signs this transaction (alice_near) the account towards which this transaction is addressed (bob_near). Alice also uses the public key associated with one of the full access keys of alice_near account.

Additionally, Alice uses the nonce which is unique value that allows Near Protocol to differentiate the transactions (in case there are several transfers coming in rapid succession) which should be strictly increasing with each transaction. Unlike in Ethereum, nonces are associated with access keys, oppose to the entire accounts, so several users using the same account through different access keys need not to worry about accidentally reusing each other's nonces.

The block hash is used to calculate the transaction "freshness". It is used to make sure the transaction does not get lost (let's say somewhere in the network) and then arrive hours, days, or years later when it is not longer relevant or would be undesirable to execute. The transaction does not need to arrive at the specific block, instead it is required to arrive within certain number of blocks from the bock identified by the block_hash (as of 2019-10-27 the constant is 10 blocks). Any transaction arriving outside this threshold is considered to be invalid.

near-shell or other tool that Alice uses then signs this transaction, by: computing the hash of the transaction and signing it with the secret key, resulting in a SignedTransaction object.

Sending the transaction

To send the transaction, near-shell connects through the RPC to any Near Protocol node and submits it. If users wants to wait until the transaction is processed they can use send_tx_commit JSONRPC method which waits for the transaction to appear in a block. Otherwise the user can use send_tx_async.

Transaction to receipt

We skip the details on how the transaction arrives to be processed by the runtime, since it is a part of the blockchain layer discussion. We consider the moment where SignedTransaction is getting passed to Runtime::apply of the runtime crate. Runtime::apply immediately passes transaction to Runtime::process_transaction which in turn does the following:

  • Verifies that transaction is valid;
  • Applies initial reversible and irreversible charges to alice_near account;
  • Creates a receipt with the same set of actions directed towards bob_near.

The first two items are performed inside Runtime::verify_and_charge_transaction method. Specifically it does the following checks:

  • Verifies that alice_near and bob_near are syntactically valid account ids;
  • Verifies that the signature of the transaction is correct based on the transaction hash and the attached public key;
  • Retrieves the latest state of the alice_near account, and simultaneously checks that it exists;
  • Retrieves the state of the access key of that alice_near used to sign the transaction;
  • Checks that transaction nonce is greater than the nonce of the latest transaction executed with that access key;
  • Checks whether the account that signed the transaction is the same as the account that receives it. In our case the sender (alice_near) and the receiver (bob_near) are not the same. We apply different fees if receiver and sender is the same account;
  • Applies the storage rent to the alice_near account;
  • Computes how much gas we need to spend to convert this transaction to a receipt;
  • Computes how much balance we need to subtract from alice_near, in this case it is 100 tokens;
  • Deducts the tokens and the gas from alice_near balance, using the current gas price;
  • Checks whether after all these operations account has enough balance to passively pay for the rent for the next several blocks (an economical constant defined by Near Protocol). Otherwise account will be open for an immediate deletion, which we do not want;
  • Updates the alice_near account with the new balance and the used access key with the new nonce;
  • Computes how much reward should be paid to the validators from the burnt gas.

If any of the above operations fail all of the changes will be reverted.

Processing receipt

The receipt created in the previous section will eventually arrive to a runtime on the shard that hosts bob_near account. Again, it will be processed by Runtime::apply which will immediately call Runtime::process_receipt. It will check that this receipt does not have data dependencies (which is only the case of function calls) and will then call Runtime::apply_action_receipt on TransferAction. Runtime::apply_action_receipt will perform the following checks:

  • Retrieves the state of bob_near account, if it still exists (it is possible that Bob has deleted his account concurrently with the transfer transaction);
  • Applies the rent to Bob's account;
  • Computes the cost of processing a receipt and a transfer action;
  • Checks if bob_near still exists and if it is deposits the transferred tokens;
  • Computes how much reward should be paid to the validators from the burnt gas.

Cross-Contract Call

This guide assumes that you have read the Financial Transaction section.

Suppose Alice is a calling a function reserve_trip(city: String, date: u64) on a smart contract deployed to a travel_agency account which in turn calls reserve(date: u64) on a smart contract deployed to a hotel_near account and attaches a callback to method hotel_reservation_complete(date: u64) on travel_agency.

Pre-requisites

It possible for Alice to call the travel_agency in several different ways.

In the simplest scenario Alice has an account alice_near and she has a full access key. She then composes the following transaction that calls the travel_agency:

Transaction {
    signer_id: "alice_near",
    public_key: "ed25519:32zVgoqtuyRuDvSMZjWQ774kK36UTwuGRZMmPsS6xpMy",
    nonce: 57,
    receiver_id: "travel_agency",
    block_hash: "CjNSmWXTWhC3EhRVtqLhRmWMTkRbU96wUACqxMtV1uGf",
    actions: vec![
        Action::FunctionCall(FunctionCallAction {
            method_name: "reserve_trip",
            args: "{\"city\": \"Venice\", \"date\": 20191201}",
            gas: 1000000,
            tokens: 100,
        })
    ],
}

Here the public key corresponds to the full access key of alice_near account. All other fields in Transaction were discussed in the Financial Transaction section. The FunctionCallAction action describes how the contract should be called. The receiver_id field in Transaction already establishes what contract should be executed, FunctionCallAction merely describes how it should be executed. Interestingly, the arguments is just a blob of bytes, it is up to the contract developer what serialization format they choose for their arguments. In this example, the contract developer has chosen to use JSON and so the tool that Alice uses to compose this transaction is expected to use JSON too to pass the arguments. gas declares how much gas alice_near has prepaid for dynamically calculated fees of the smart contract executions and other actions that this transaction may spawn. The tokens is the amount of alice_near attaches to be deposited to whatever smart contract that it is calling to. Notice, gas and tokens are in different units of measurement.

Now, consider a slightly more complex scenario. In this scenario Alice uses a restricted access key to call the function. That is the permission of the access key is not AccessKeyPermission::FullAccess but is instead: AccessKeyPermission::FunctionCall(FunctionCallPermission) where

FunctionCallPermission {
    allowance: Some(3000),
    receiver_id: "travel_agency",
    method_names: [ "reserve_trip", "cancel_trip" ]
}

This scenario might arise when someone Alice's parent has given them a restricted access to alice_near account by creating an access key that can be used strictly for trip management. This access key allows up to 3000 tokens to be spent (which includes token transfers and payments for gas), it can be only used to call travel_agency and it can be only used with the reserve_trip and cancel_trip methods. The way runtime treats this case is almost exactly the same as the previous one, with the only difference on how it verifies the signature of on the signed transaction, and that it also checks for allowance to not be exceeded.

Finally, in the last scenario, Alice does not have an account (or the existence of alice_near is irrelevant). However, alice has full or restricted access key directly on travel_agency account. In that case signer_id == receiver_id in the Transaction object and runtime will convert transaction to the first receipt and apply that receipt in the same block.

This section will focus on the first scenario, since the other two are the same with some minor differences.

Transaction to receipt

The process of converting transaction to receipt is very similar to the Financial Transaction with several key points to note:

  • Since Alice attaches 100 tokens to the function call, we subtract them from alice_near upon converting transaction to receipt, similar to the regular financial transaction;
  • Since we are attaching 1000000 prepaid gas, we will not only subtract the gas costs of processing the receipt from alice_near, but will also purchase 1000000 gas using the current gas price.

Processing the reserve_trip receipt

The receipt created on the shard that hosts alice_near will eventually arrive to the shard hosting travel_agency account. It will be processed in Runtime::apply which will check that receipt does not have data dependencies (which is the case because this function call is not a callback) and will call Runtime::apply_action_receipt. At this point receipt processing is similar to receipt processing from the Financial Transaction section, with one difference that we will also call action_function_call which will do the following:

  • Retrieve the Wasm code of the smart contract (either from the database or from the cache);
  • Initialize runtime context through VMContext and create RuntimeExt which provides access to the trie when the smart contract call the storage API. Specifically "{\"city\": \"Venice\", \"date\": 20191201}" arguments will be set in VMContext.
  • Calls near_vm_runner::run which does the following:
    • Inject gas, stack, and other kinds of metering;
    • Verify that Wasm code does not use floats;
    • Checks that bindings API functions that the smart contract is trying to call are actually those provided by near_vm_logic;
    • Compiles Wasm code into the native binary;
    • Calls reserve_trip on the smart contract.
      • During the execution of the smart contract it will at some point call promise_create and promise_then, which will call method on RuntimeExt that will record that two promises were created and that the second one should wait on the first one. Specifically, promise_create will call RuntimeExt::create_receipt(vec![], "hotel_near") returning 0 and then RuntimeExt::create_receipt(vec![0], "travel_agency");
  • action_function_call then collects receipts from VMContext along with the execution result, logs, and information about used gas;
  • apply_action_receipt then goes over the collected receipts from each action and returns them at the end of Runtime::apply together with other receipts.

Processing the reserve receipt

This receipt will have output_data_receivers with one element corresponding to the receipt that calls hotel_reservation_complete, which will tell the runtime that it should create DataReceipt and send it towards travel_agency once the execution of reserve(date: u64) is complete.

The rest of the smart contract execution is similar to the above.

Processing the hotel_reservation_complete receipt

Upon receiving the hotel_reservation_complete receipt the runtime will notice that its input_data_ids is not empty which means that it cannot be executed until reserve receipt is complete. It will store the receipt in the trie together with the counter of how many DataReceipt it is waiting on.

It will not call the Wasm smart contract at this point.

Processing the DataReceipt

Once the runtime receives the DataReceipt it takes the receipt with hotel_reservation_complete function call and executes it following the same execution steps as with the reserve_trip receipt.

Components

Here is the high-level diagram of various runtime components, including some blockchain layer components.

Runtime crate

Runtime crate encapsulates the logic of how transactions and receipts should be handled. If it encounters a smart contract call within a transaction or a receipt it calls near-vm-runner, for all other actions, like account creation, it processes them in-place.

Runtime class

The main entry point of the Runtime is method apply. It applies new singed transactions and incoming receipts for some chunk/shard on top of given trie and the given state root. If the validator accounts update is provided, updates validators accounts. All new signed transactions should be valid and already verified by the chunk producer. If any transaction is invalid, the method returns an InvalidTxError. In case of success, the method returns ApplyResult that contains the new state root, trie changes, new outgoing receipts, stats for validators (e.g. total rent paid by all the affected accounts), execution outcomes.

Apply arguments

It takes the following arguments:

  • trie: Arc<Trie> - the trie that contains the latest state.
  • root: CryptoHash - the hash of the state root in the trie.
  • validator_accounts_update: &Option<ValidatorAccountsUpdate> - optional field that contains updates for validator accounts. It's provided at the beginning of the epoch or when someone is slashed.
  • apply_state: &ApplyState - contains block index and timestamp, epoch length, gas price and gas limit.
  • prev_receipts: &[Receipt] - the list of incoming receipts, from the previous block.
  • transactions: &[SignedTransaction] - the list of new signed transactions.

Apply logic

The execution consists of the following stages:

  1. Snapshot the initial state.
  2. Apply validator accounts update, if available.
  3. Convert new signed transactions into the receipts.
  4. Process receipts.
  5. Check that incoming and outgoing balances match.
  6. Finalize trie update.
  7. Return ApplyResult.

Validator accounts update

Validator accounts are accounts that staked some tokens to become a validator. The validator accounts update usually happens when the current chunk is the first chunk of the epoch. It also happens when there is a challenge in the current block with one of the participants belong to the current shard.

This update distributes validator rewards, return locked tokens and maybe slashes some accounts out of their stake.

Signed Transaction conversion

New signed transaction transactions are provided by the chunk producer in the chunk. These transactions should be ordered and already validated. Runtime does validation again for the following reasons:

  • to charge accounts for transactions fees, transfer balances, prepaid gas and account rents;
  • to create new receipts;
  • to compute burnt gas;
  • to validate transactions again, in case the chunk producer was malicious.

If the transaction has the the same signer_id and receiver_id, then the new receipt is added to the list of new local receipts, otherwise it's added to the list of new outgoing receipts.

Receipt processing

Receipts are processed one by one in the following order:

  1. Previously delayed receipts from the state.
  2. New local receipts.
  3. New incoming receipts.

After each processed receipt, we compare total gas burnt (so far) with the gas limit. When the total gas burnt reaches or exceeds the gas limit, the processing stops. The remaining receipts are considered delayed and stored into the state.

Delayed receipts

Delayed receipts are stored as a persistent queue in the state. Initially, the first unprocessed index and the next available index are initialized to 0. When a new delayed receipt is added, it's written under the next available index in to the state and the next available index is incremented by 1. When a delayed receipt is processed, it's read from the state using the first unprocessed index and the first unprocessed index is incremented. At the end of the receipt processing, the all remaining local and incoming receipts are considered to be delayed and stored to the state in their respective order. If during receipt processing, we've changed indices, then the delayed receipt indices are stored to the state as well.

Receipt processing algorithm

The receipt processing algorithm is the following:

  1. Read indices from the state or initialize with zeros.
  2. While the first unprocessed index is less than the next available index do the following
    1. If the total burnt gas is at least the gas limit, break.
    2. Read the receipt from the first unprocessed index.
    3. Remove the receipt from the state.
    4. Increment the first unprocessed index.
    5. Process the receipt.
    6. Add the new burnt gas to the total burnt gas.
    7. Remember that the delayed queue indices has changed.
  3. Process the new local receipts and then the new incoming receipts
    • If the total burnt gas is less then the gas limit:
      1. Process the receipt.
      2. Add the new burnt gas to the total burnt gas.
    • Else:
      1. Store the receipt under the next available index.
      2. Increment the next available index.
      3. Remember that the delayed queue indices has changed.
  4. If the delayed queue indices has changed, store the new indices to the state.

Balance checker

Balance checker computes the total incoming balance and the total outgoing balance.

The total incoming balance consists of the following:

  • Incoming validator rewards from validator accounts update.
  • Sum of the initial accounts balances for all affected accounts. We compute it using the snapshot of the initial state.
  • Incoming receipts balances. The prepaid fees and gas multiplied their gas prices with the attached balances from transfers and function calls. Refunds are considered to be free of charge for fees, but still has attached deposits.
  • Balances for the processed delayed receipts.
  • Initial balances for the postponed receipts. Postponed receipts are receipts from the previous blocks that were processed, but were not executed. They are action receipts with some expected incoming data. Usually for a callback on top of awaited promise. When the expected data arrives later than the action receipt, then the action receipt is postponed. Note, the data receipts are 0 cost, because they are completely prepaid when issued.

The total outgoing balance consists of the following:

  • Sum of the final accounts balance for all affected accounts.
  • Outgoing receipts balances.
  • New delayed receipts. Local and incoming receipts that were not processed this time.
  • Final balances for the postponed receipts.
  • Total rent paid by all affected accounts.
  • Total new validator rewards. It's computed from total gas burnt rewards.
  • Total balance burnt. In case the balance is burnt for some reason (e.g. account was deleted during the refund), it's accounted there.
  • Total balance slashed. In case a validator is slashed for some reason, the balance is account here.

When you sum up incoming balances and outgoing balances, they should match. If they don't match, we throw an error.

Bindings Specification

This is the low-level interface available to the smart contracts, it consists of the functions that the host (represented by Wasmer inside near-vm-runner) exposes to the guest (the smart contract compiled to Wasm).

Due to Wasm restrictions the methods operate only with primitive types, like u64.

Also for all functions in the bindings specification the following is true:

  • Method execution could result in MemoryAccessViolation error if one of the following happens:
    • The method causes host to read a piece of memory from the guest but it points outside the guest's memory;
    • The guest causes host to read from the register, but register id is invalid.

Execution of a bindings function call result in an error being generated. This error causes execution of the smart contract to be terminated and the error message written into the logs of the transaction that caused the execution. Many bindings functions can throw specialized error messages, but there is also a list of error messages that can be thrown by almost any function:

  • IntegerOverflow -- happens when guest passes some data to the host but when host tries to apply arithmetic operation on it it causes overflow or underflow;
  • GasExceeded -- happens when operation performed by the guest causes more gas than the remaining prepaid gas;
  • GasLimitExceeded -- happens when the execution uses more gas than allowed by the global limit imposed in the economics config;
  • StorageError -- happens when method fails to do some operation on the trie.

The following binding methods cannot be invoked in a view call:

  • signer_account_id
  • signer_account_pk
  • predecessor_account_id
  • attached_deposit
  • prepaid_gas
  • used_gas
  • promise_create
  • promise_then
  • promise_and
  • promise_batch_create
  • promise_batch_then
  • promise_batch_action_create_account
  • promise_batch_action_deploy_account
  • promise_batch_action_function_call
  • promise_batch_action_transfer
  • promise_batch_action_stake
  • promise_batch_action_add_key_with_full_access
  • promise_batch_action_add_key_with_function_call
  • promise_batch_action_delete_key
  • promise_batch_action_delete_account
  • promise_results_count
  • promise_result
  • promise_return

If they are invoked the smart contract execution will panic with ProhibitedInView(<method name>).

Registers API

Registers allow the host function to return the data into a buffer located inside the host oppose to the buffer located on the client. A special operation can be used to copy the content of the buffer into the host. Memory pointers can then be used to point either to the memory on the guest or the memory on the host, see below. Benefits:

  • We can have functions that return values that are not necessarily used, e.g. inserting key-value into a trie can also return the preempted old value, which might not be necessarily used. Previously, if we returned something we would have to pass the blob from host into the guest, even if it is not used;
  • We can pass blobs of data between host functions without going through the guest, e.g. we can remove the value from the storage and insert it into under a different key;
  • It makes API cleaner, because we don't need to pass buffer_len and buffer_ptr as arguments to other functions;
  • It allows merging certain functions together, see storage_iter_next;
  • This is consistent with other APIs that were created for high performance, e.g. allegedly Ewasm have implemented SNARK-like computations in Wasm by exposing a bignum library through stack-like interface to the guest. The guest can manipulate then with the stack of 256-bit numbers that is located on the host.

Host → host blob passing

The registers can be used to pass the blobs between host functions. For any function that takes a pair of arguments *_len: u64, *_ptr: u64 this pair is pointing to a region of memory either on the guest or the host:

  • If *_len != u64::MAX it points to the memory on the guest;
  • If *_len == u64::MAX it points to the memory under the register *_ptr on the host.

For example: storage_write(u64::MAX, 0, u64::MAX, 1, 2) -- insert key-value into storage, where key is read from register 0, value is read from register 1, and result is saved to register 2.

Note, if some function takes register_id then it means this function can copy some data into this register. If register_id == u64::MAX then the copying does not happen. This allows some micro-optimizations in the future.

Note, we allow multiple registers on the host, identified with u64 number. The guest does not have to use them in order and can for instance save some blob in register 5000 and another value in register 1.

Specification


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
read_register(register_id: u64, ptr: u64)
}

Writes the entire content from the register register_id into the memory of the guest starting with ptr.

Panics
  • If the content extends outside the memory allocated to the guest. In Wasmer, it returns MemoryAccessViolation error message;
  • If register_id is pointing to unused register returns InvalidRegisterId error message.
Undefined Behavior
  • If the content of register extends outside the preallocated memory on the host side, or the pointer points to a wrong location this function will overwrite memory that it is not supposed to overwrite causing an undefined behavior.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
register_len(register_id: u64) -> u64
}

Returns the size of the blob stored in the given register.

Normal operation
  • If register is used, then returns the size, which can potentially be zero;
  • If register is not used, returns u64::MAX

Trie API

Here we provide a specification of trie API. After this NEP is merged, the cases where our current implementation does not follow the specification are considered to be bugs that need to be fixed.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_write(key_len: u64, key_ptr: u64, value_len: u64, value_ptr: u64, register_id: u64) -> u64
}

Writes key-value into storage.

Normal operation
  • If key is not in use it inserts the key-value pair and does not modify the register;
  • If key is in use it inserts the key-value and copies the old value into the register_id.
Returns
  • If key was not used returns 0;
  • If key was used returns 1.
Panics
  • If key_len + key_ptr or value_len + value_ptr exceeds the memory container or points to an unused register it panics with MemoryAccessViolation. (When we say that something panics with the given error we mean that we use Wasmer API to create this error and terminate the execution of VM. For mocks of the host that would only cause a non-name panic.)
  • If returning the preempted value into the registers exceed the memory container it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
Current bugs
  • External::storage_set trait can return an error which is then converted to a generic non-descriptive StorageUpdateError, here however the actual implementation does not return error at all, see;
  • Does not return into the registers.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_read(key_len: u64, key_ptr: u64, register_id: u64) -> u64
}

Reads the value stored under the given key.

Normal operation
  • If key is used copies the content of the value into the register_id, even if the content is zero bytes;
  • If key is not present then does not modify the register.
Returns
  • If key was not present returns 0;
  • If key was present returns 1.
Panics
  • If key_len + key_ptr exceeds the memory container or points to an unused register it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If returning the preempted value into the registers exceed the memory container it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
Current bugs
  • This function currently does not exist.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_remove(key_len: u64, key_ptr: u64, register_id: u64) -> u64
}

Removes the value stored under the given key.

Normal operation

Very similar to storage_read:

  • If key is used, removes the key-value from the trie and copies the content of the value into the register_id, even if the content is zero bytes.
  • If key is not present then does not modify the register.
Returns
  • If key was not present returns 0;
  • If key was present returns 1.
Panics
  • If key_len + key_ptr exceeds the memory container or points to an unused register it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If returning the preempted value into the registers exceed the memory container it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
Current bugs
  • Does not return into the registers.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_has_key(key_len: u64, key_ptr: u64) -> u64
}

Checks if there is a key-value pair.

Normal operation
  • If key is used returns 1, even if the value is zero bytes;
  • Otherwise returns 0.
Panics
  • If key_len + key_ptr exceeds the memory container it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_iter_prefix(prefix_len: u64, prefix_ptr: u64) -> u64
}

DEPRECATED, calling it will result result in HostError::Deprecated error. Creates an iterator object inside the host. Returns the identifier that uniquely differentiates the given iterator from other iterators that can be simultaneously created.

Normal operation
  • It iterates over the keys that have the provided prefix. The order of iteration is defined by the lexicographic order of the bytes in the keys. If there are no keys, it creates an empty iterator, see below on empty iterators;
Panics
  • If prefix_len + prefix_ptr exceeds the memory container it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_iter_range(start_len: u64, start_ptr: u64, end_len: u64, end_ptr: u64) -> u64
}

DEPRECATED, calling it will result result in HostError::Deprecated error. Similarly to storage_iter_prefix creates an iterator object inside the host.

Normal operation

Unless lexicographically start < end, it creates an empty iterator. Iterates over all key-values such that keys are between start and end, where start is inclusive and end is exclusive.

Note, this definition allows for start or end keys to not actually exist on the given trie.

Panics:
  • If start_len + start_ptr or end_len + end_ptr exceeds the memory container or points to an unused register it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_iter_next(iterator_id: u64, key_register_id: u64, value_register_id: u64) -> u64
}

DEPRECATED, calling it will result result in HostError::Deprecated error. Advances iterator and saves the next key and value in the register.

Normal operation
  • If iterator is not empty (after calling next it points to a key-value), copies the key into key_register_id and value into value_register_id and returns 1;
  • If iterator is empty returns 0.

This allows us to iterate over the keys that have zero bytes stored in values.

Panics
  • If key_register_id == value_register_id panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If iterator_id does not correspond to an existing iterator panics with InvalidIteratorId
  • If between the creation of the iterator and calling storage_iter_next any modification to storage was done through storage_write or storage_remove the iterator is invalidated and the error message is IteratorWasInvalidated.
Current bugs
  • Not implemented, currently we have storage_iter_next and data_read + DATA_TYPE_STORAGE_ITER that together fulfill the purpose, but have unspecified behavior.

Promises API


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_create(account_id_len: u64,
               account_id_ptr: u64,
               method_name_len: u64,
               method_name_ptr: u64,
               arguments_len: u64,
               arguments_ptr: u64,
               amount_ptr: u64,
               gas: u64) -> u64
}

Creates a promise that will execute a method on account with given arguments and attaches the given amount. amount_ptr point to slices of bytes representing u128.

Panics
  • If account_id_len + account_id_ptr or method_name_len + method_name_ptr or arguments_len + arguments_ptr or amount_ptr + 16 points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Returns
  • Index of the new promise that uniquely identifies it within the current execution of the method.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_then(promise_idx: u64,
             account_id_len: u64,
             account_id_ptr: u64,
             method_name_len: u64,
             method_name_ptr: u64,
             arguments_len: u64,
             arguments_ptr: u64,
             amount_ptr: u64,
             gas: u64) -> u64
}

Attaches the callback that is executed after promise pointed by promise_idx is complete.

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If account_id_len + account_id_ptr or method_name_len + method_name_ptr or arguments_len + arguments_ptr or amount_ptr + 16 points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Returns
  • Index of the new promise that uniquely identifies it within the current execution of the method.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_and(promise_idx_ptr: u64, promise_idx_count: u64) -> u64
}

Creates a new promise which completes when time all promises passed as arguments complete. Cannot be used with registers. promise_idx_ptr points to an array of u64 elements, with promise_idx_count denoting the number of elements. The array contains indices of promises that need to be waited on jointly.

Panics
  • If promise_ids_ptr + 8 * promise_idx_count extend outside the guest memory with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If any of the promises in the array do not correspond to existing promises panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Returns
  • Index of the new promise that uniquely identifies it within the current execution of the method.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_results_count() -> u64
}

If the current function is invoked by a callback we can access the execution results of the promises that caused the callback. This function returns the number of complete and incomplete callbacks.

Note, we are only going to have incomplete callbacks once we have promise_or combinator.

Normal execution
  • If there is only one callback promise_results_count() returns 1;
  • If there are multiple callbacks (e.g. created through promise_and) promise_results_count() returns their number.
  • If the function was called not through the callback promise_results_count() returns 0.
Panics
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_result(result_idx: u64, register_id: u64) -> u64
}

If the current function is invoked by a callback we can access the execution results of the promises that caused the callback. This function returns the result in blob format and places it into the register.

Normal execution
  • If promise result is complete and successful copies its blob into the register;
  • If promise result is complete and failed or incomplete keeps register unused;
Returns
  • If promise result is not complete returns 0;
  • If promise result is complete and successful returns 1;
  • If promise result is complete and failed returns 2.
Panics
  • If result_idx does not correspond to an existing result panics with InvalidResultIndex.
  • If copying the blob exhausts the memory limit it panics with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Current bugs
  • We currently have two separate functions to check for result completion and copy it.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_return(promise_idx: u64)
}

When promise promise_idx finishes executing its result is considered to be the result of the current function.

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
Current bugs
  • The current name return_promise is inconsistent with the naming convention of Promise API.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_create(account_id_len: u64, account_id_ptr: u64) -> u64
}

Creates a new promise towards given account_id without any actions attached to it.

Panics
  • If account_id_len + account_id_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Returns
  • Index of the new promise that uniquely identifies it within the current execution of the method.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_then(promise_idx: u64, account_id_len: u64, account_id_ptr: u64) -> u64
}

Attaches a new empty promise that is executed after promise pointed by promise_idx is complete.

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If account_id_len + account_id_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Returns
  • Index of the new promise that uniquely identifies it within the current execution of the method.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_create_account(promise_idx: u64)
}

Appends CreateAccount action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R48

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_deploy_contract(promise_idx: u64, code_len: u64, code_ptr: u64)
}

Appends DeployContract action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R49

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If code_len + code_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_function_call(promise_idx: u64,
                                   method_name_len: u64,
                                   method_name_ptr: u64,
                                   arguments_len: u64,
                                   arguments_ptr: u64,
                                   amount_ptr: u64,
                                   gas: u64)
}

Appends FunctionCall action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R50

NOTE: Calling promise_batch_create and then promise_batch_action_function_call will produce the same promise as calling promise_create directly.

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If account_id_len + account_id_ptr or method_name_len + method_name_ptr or arguments_len + arguments_ptr or amount_ptr + 16 points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_transfer(promise_idx: u64, amount_ptr: u64)
}

Appends Transfer action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R51

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If amount_ptr + 16 points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_stake(promise_idx: u64,
                           amount_ptr: u64,
                           bls_public_key_len: u64,
                           bls_public_key_ptr: u64)
}

Appends Stake action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R52

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If the given BLS public key is not a valid BLS public key (e.g. wrong length) InvalidPublicKey.
  • If amount_ptr + 16 or bls_public_key_len + bls_public_key_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_add_key_with_full_access(promise_idx: u64,
                                              public_key_len: u64,
                                              public_key_ptr: u64,
                                              nonce: u64)
}

Appends AddKey action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R54 The access key will have FullAccess permission, details: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/blob/master/text/0005-access-keys.md#guide-level-explanation

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If the given public key is not a valid public key (e.g. wrong length) InvalidPublicKey.
  • If public_key_len + public_key_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_add_key_with_function_call(promise_idx: u64,
                                                public_key_len: u64,
                                                public_key_ptr: u64,
                                                nonce: u64,
                                                allowance_ptr: u64,
                                                receiver_id_len: u64,
                                                receiver_id_ptr: u64,
                                                method_names_len: u64,
                                                method_names_ptr: u64)
}

Appends AddKey action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-156752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R54 The access key will have FunctionCall permission, details: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/blob/master/text/0005-access-keys.md#guide-level-explanation

  • If the allowance value (not the pointer) is 0, the allowance is set to None (which means unlimited allowance). And positive value represents a Some(...) allowance.
  • Given method_names is a utf-8 string with , used as a separator. The vm will split the given string into a vector of strings.
Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If the given public key is not a valid public key (e.g. wrong length) InvalidPublicKey.
  • if method_names is not a valid utf-8 string, fails with BadUTF8.
  • If public_key_len + public_key_ptr, allowance_ptr + 16, receiver_id_len + receiver_id_ptr or method_names_len + method_names_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_delete_key(promise_idx: u64,
                                public_key_len: u64,
                                public_key_ptr: u64)
}

Appends DeleteKey action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Details for the action: https://github.com/nearprotocol/NEPs/pull/8/files#diff-15b6752ec7d78e7b85b8c7de4a19cbd4R55

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If the given public key is not a valid public key (e.g. wrong length) InvalidPublicKey.
  • If public_key_len + public_key_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
promise_batch_action_delete_account(promise_idx: u64,
                                    beneficiary_id_len: u64,
                                    beneficiary_id_ptr: u64)
}

Appends DeleteAccount action to the batch of actions for the given promise pointed by promise_idx. Action is used to delete an account. It can be performed on a newly created account, on your own account or an account with insufficient funds to pay rent. Takes beneficiary_id to indicate where to send the remaining funds.

Panics
  • If promise_idx does not correspond to an existing promise panics with InvalidPromiseIndex.
  • If the promise pointed by the promise_idx is an ephemeral promise created by promise_and.
  • If beneficiary_id_len + beneficiary_id_ptr points outside the memory of the guest or host, with MemoryAccessViolation.
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

Context API

Context API mostly provides read-only functions that access current information about the blockchain, the accounts (that originally initiated the chain of cross-contract calls, the immediate contract that called the current one, the account of the current contract), other important information like storage usage.

Many of the below functions are currently implemented through data_read which allows to read generic context data. However, there is no reason to have data_read instead of the specific functions:

  • data_read does not solve forward compatibility. If later we want to add another context function, e.g. executed_operations we can just declare it as a new function, instead of encoding it as DATA_TYPE_EXECUTED_OPERATIONS = 42 which is passed as the first argument to data_read;
  • data_read does not help with renaming. If later we decide to rename signer_account_id to originator_id then one could argue that contracts that rely on data_read would not break, while contracts relying on signer_account_id() would. However the name change often means the change of the semantics, which means the contracts using this function are no longer safe to execute anyway.

However there is one reason to not have data_read -- it makes API more human-like which is a general direction Wasm APIs, like WASI are moving towards to.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
current_account_id(register_id: u64)
}

Saves the account id of the current contract that we execute into the register.

Panics
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
signer_account_id(register_id: u64)
}

All contract calls are a result of some transaction that was signed by some account using some access key and submitted into a memory pool (either through the wallet using RPC or by a node itself). This function returns the id of that account.

Normal operation
  • Saves the bytes of the signer account id into the register.
Panics
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Current bugs
  • Currently we conflate originator_id and sender_id in our code base.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
signer_account_pk(register_id: u64)
}

Saves the public key fo the access key that was used by the signer into the register. In rare situations smart contract might want to know the exact access key that was used to send the original transaction, e.g. to increase the allowance or manipulate with the public key.

Panics
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Current bugs
  • Not implemented.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
predecessor_account_id(register_id: u64)
}

All contract calls are a result of a receipt, this receipt might be created by a transaction that does function invocation on the contract or another contract as a result of cross-contract call.

Normal operation
  • Saves the bytes of the predecessor account id into the register.
Panics
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Current bugs
  • Not implemented.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
input(register_id: u64)
}

Reads input to the contract call into the register. Input is expected to be in JSON-format.

Normal operation
  • If input is provided saves the bytes (potentially zero) of input into register.
  • If input is not provided does not modify the register.
Returns
  • If input was not provided returns 0;
  • If input was provided returns 1; If input is zero bytes returns 1, too.
Panics
  • If the registers exceed the memory limit panics with MemoryAccessViolation;
Current bugs
  • Implemented as part of data_read. However there is no reason to have one unified function, like data_read that can be used to read all

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
block_index() -> u64
}

Returns the current block height from genesis.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
block_timestamp() -> u64
}

Returns the current block timestamp (number of non-leap-nanoseconds since January 1, 1970 0:00:00 UTC).


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
epoch_height() -> u64
}

Returns the current epoch height from genesis.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
storage_usage() -> u64
}

Returns the number of bytes used by the contract if it was saved to the trie as of the invocation. This includes:

  • The data written with storage_* functions during current and previous execution;
  • The bytes needed to store the account protobuf and the access keys of the given account.

Economics API

Accounts own certain balance; and each transaction and each receipt have certain amount of balance and prepaid gas attached to them. During the contract execution, the contract has access to the following u128 values:

  • account_balance -- the balance attached to the given account. This includes the attached_deposit that was attached to the transaction;
  • attached_deposit -- the balance that was attached to the call that will be immediately deposited before the contract execution starts;
  • prepaid_gas -- the tokens attached to the call that can be used to pay for the gas;
  • used_gas -- the gas that was already burnt during the contract execution and attached to promises (cannot exceed prepaid_gas);

If contract execution fails prepaid_gas - used_gas is refunded back to signer_account_id and attached_deposit is refunded back to predecessor_account_id.

The following spec is the same for all functions:


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
account_balance(balance_ptr: u64)
attached_deposit(balance_ptr: u64)

}

-- writes the value into the u128 variable pointed by balance_ptr.

Panics
  • If balance_ptr + 16 points outside the memory of the guest with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.
Current bugs
  • Use a different name;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
prepaid_gas() -> u64
used_gas() -> u64
}
Panics
  • If called in a view function panics with ProhibitedInView.

Math API


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
random_seed(register_id: u64)
}

Returns random seed that can be used for pseudo-random number generation in deterministic way.

Panics
  • If the size of the registers exceed the set limit MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
sha256(value_len: u64, value_ptr: u64, register_id: u64)
}

Hashes the random sequence of bytes using sha256 and returns it into register_id.

Panics
  • If value_len + value_ptr points outside the memory or the registers use more memory than the limit with MemoryAccessViolation.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
keccak256(value_len: u64, value_ptr: u64, register_id: u64)
}

Hashes the random sequence of bytes using keccak256 and returns it into register_id.

Panics
  • If value_len + value_ptr points outside the memory or the registers use more memory than the limit with MemoryAccessViolation.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
keccak512(value_len: u64, value_ptr: u64, register_id: u64)
}

Hashes the random sequence of bytes using keccak512 and returns it into register_id.

Panics
  • If value_len + value_ptr points outside the memory or the registers use more memory than the limit with MemoryAccessViolation.

Miscellaneous API


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
value_return(value_len: u64, value_ptr: u64)
}

Sets the blob of data as the return value of the contract.

Panics
  • If value_len + value_ptr exceeds the memory container or points to an unused register it panics with MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
panic()
}

Terminates the execution of the program with panic GuestPanic("explicit guest panic").


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
panic_utf8(len: u64, ptr: u64)
}

Terminates the execution of the program with panic GuestPanic(s), where s is the given UTF-8 encoded string.

Normal behavior

If len == u64::MAX then treats the string as null-terminated with character '\0';

Panics
  • If string extends outside the memory of the guest with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If string is not UTF-8 returns BadUtf8.
  • If string length without null-termination symbol is larger than config.max_log_len returns BadUtf8.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
log_utf8(len: u64, ptr: u64)
}

Logs the UTF-8 encoded string.

Normal behavior

If len == u64::MAX then treats the string as null-terminated with character '\0';

Panics
  • If string extends outside the memory of the guest with MemoryAccessViolation;
  • If string is not UTF-8 returns BadUtf8.
  • If string length without null-termination symbol is larger than config.max_log_len returns BadUtf8.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
log_utf16(len: u64, ptr: u64)
}

Logs the UTF-16 encoded string. len is the number of bytes in the string. See https://stackoverflow.com/a/5923961 that explains that null termination is not defined through encoding.

Normal behavior

If len == u64::MAX then treats the string as null-terminated with two-byte sequence of 0x00 0x00.

Panics
  • If string extends outside the memory of the guest with MemoryAccessViolation;

#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
abort(msg_ptr: u32, filename_ptr: u32, line: u32, col: u32)
}

Special import kept for compatibility with AssemblyScript contracts. Not called by smart contracts directly, but instead called by the code generated by AssemblyScript.

Future Improvements

In the future we can have some of the registers to be on the guest. For instance a guest can tell the host that it has some pre-allocated memory that it wants to be used for the register, e.g.


#![allow(unused_variables)]
fn main() {
set_guest_register(register_id: u64, register_ptr: u64, max_register_size: u64)
}

will assign register_id to a span of memory on the guest. Host then would also know the size of that buffer on guest and can throw a panic if there is an attempted copying that exceeds the guest register size.

GenesisConfig

protocol_version

type: u32

Protocol version that this genesis works with.

genesis_time

type: DateTime

Official time of blockchain start.

chain_id

type: String

ID of the blockchain. This must be unique for every blockchain. If your testnet blockchains do not have unique chain IDs, you will have a bad time.

num_block_producers

type: u32

Number of block producer seats at genesis.

block_producers_per_shard

type: [ValidatorId]

Defines number of shards and number of validators per each shard at genesis.

avg_fisherman_per_shard

type: [ValidatorId]

Expected number of fisherman per shard.

dynamic_resharding

type: bool

Enable dynamic re-sharding.

epoch_length

type: BlockIndex,

Epoch length counted in blocks.

gas_limit

type: Gas,

Initial gas limit for a block

gas_price

type: Balance,

Initial gas price

block_producer_kickout_threshold

type: u8

Criterion for kicking out block producers (this is a number between 0 and 100)

chunk_producer_kickout_threshold

type: u8

Criterion for kicking out chunk producers (this is a number between 0 and 100)

gas_price_adjustment_rate

type: u8

Gas price adjustment rate

runtime_config

type: RuntimeConfig

Runtime configuration (mostly economics constants).

validators

type: [AccountInfo]

List of initial validators.

records

type: [StateRecord]

Records in storage at genesis (get split into shards at genesis creation).

transaction_validity_period

type: u64

Number of blocks for which a given transaction is valid

developer_reward_percentage

type: u8

Developer reward percentage (this is a number between 0 and 100)

protocol_reward_percentage

type: u8

Protocol treasury percentage (this is a number between 0 and 100)

max_inflation_rate

type: u8

Maximum inflation on the total supply every epoch (this is a number between 0 and 100)

total_supply

type: Balance

Total supply of tokens at genesis.

num_blocks_per_year

type: u64

Expected number of blocks per year

protocol_treasury_account

type: AccountId

Protocol treasury account

protocol economics

For the specific economic specs, refer to Economics Section.

RuntimeConfig

The structure that holds the parameters of the runtime, mostly economics.

storage_cost_byte_per_block

type: Balance

The cost to store one byte of storage per block.

storage_cost_byte_per_block

type: Balance

Costs of different actions that need to be performed when sending and processing transaction and receipts.

poke_threshold

type: BlockIndex

The minimum number of blocks of storage rent an account has to maintain to prevent forced deletion.

transaction_costs

type: RuntimeFeesConfig

Costs of different actions that need to be performed when sending and processing transaction and receipts.

wasm_config

type: VMConfig,

Config of wasm operations.

account_length_baseline_cost_per_block

type: Balance

The baseline cost to store account_id of short length per block. The original formula in NEP#0006 is 1,000 / (3 ^ (account_id.length - 2)) for cost per year. This value represents 1,000 above adjusted to use per block

RuntimeFeesConfig

Economic parameters for runtime

action_receipt_creation_config

type: Fee

Describes the cost of creating an action receipt, ActionReceipt, excluding the actual cost of actions.

data_receipt_creation_config

type: DataReceiptCreationConfig

Describes the cost of creating a data receipt, DataReceipt.

action_creation_config

type: ActionCreationConfig

Describes the cost of creating a certain action, Action. Includes all variants.

storage_usage_config

type: StorageUsageConfig

Describes fees for storage rent

burnt_gas_reward

type: Fraction

Fraction of the burnt gas to reward to the contract account for execution.

AccessKeyCreationConfig

Describes the cost of creating an access key.

full_access_cost

type: Fee Base cost of creating a full access access-key.

function_call_cost

type: Fee Base cost of creating an access-key restricted to specific functions.

function_call_cost_per_byte

type: Fee Cost per byte of method_names of creating a restricted access-key.

action_creation_config

Describes the cost of creating a specific action, Action. Includes all variants.

create_account_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of creating an account.

deploy_contract_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of deploying a contract.

deploy_contract_cost_per_byte

type: Fee

Cost per byte of deploying a contract.

function_call_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of calling a function.

function_call_cost_per_byte

type: Fee

Cost per byte of method name and arguments of calling a function.

transfer_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of making a transfer.

stake_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of staking.

add_key_cost:

type: AccessKeyCreationConfig Base cost of adding a key.

delete_key_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of deleting a key.

delete_account_cost

type: Fee

Base cost of deleting an account.

DataReceiptCreationConfig

Describes the cost of creating a data receipt, DataReceipt.

base_cost

type: Fee Base cost of creating a data receipt.

cost_per_byte

type: Fee Additional cost per byte sent.

StorageUsageConfig

Describes cost of storage per block

account_cost

type: Gas Base storage usage for an account

data_record_cost

type: Gas Base cost for a k/v record

key_cost_per_byte:

type: Gas Cost per byte of key

value_cost_per_byte: Gas

type: Gas Cost per byte of value

code_cost_per_byte: Gas

type: Gas Cost per byte of contract code

Fee

Costs associated with an object that can only be sent over the network (and executed by the receiver).

send_sir

Fee for sending an object from the sender to itself, guaranteeing that it does not leave

send_not_sir

Fee for sending an object potentially across the shards.

execution

Fee for executing the object.

Fraction

numerator

type: u64

denominator

type: u64

VMConfig

Config of wasm operations.

ext_costs:

type: ExtCostsConfig

Costs for runtime externals

grow_mem_cost

type: u32

Gas cost of a growing memory by single page.

regular_op_cost

type: u32

Gas cost of a regular operation.

max_gas_burnt

type: Gas

Max amount of gas that can be used, excluding gas attached to promises.

max_stack_height

type: u32

How tall the stack is allowed to grow?

initial_memory_pages

type: u32

max_memory_pages

type: u32

The initial number of memory pages. What is the maximal memory pages amount is allowed to have for a contract.

registers_memory_limit

type: u64

Limit of memory used by registers.

max_register_size

type: u64

Maximum number of bytes that can be stored in a single register.

max_number_registers

type: u64

Maximum number of registers that can be used simultaneously.

max_number_logs

type: u64

Maximum number of log entries.

max_log_len

type: u64

Maximum length of a single log, in bytes.

ExtCostsConfig

base

type: Gas

Base cost for calling a host function.

read_memory_base

type: Gas

Base cost for guest memory read

read_memory_byte

type: Gas

Cost for guest memory read

write_memory_base

type: Gas

Base cost for guest memory write

write_memory_byte

type: Gas

Cost for guest memory write per byte

read_register_base

type: Gas

Base cost for reading from register

read_register_byte

type: Gas

Cost for reading byte from register

write_register_base

type: Gas

Base cost for writing into register

write_register_byte

type: Gas

Cost for writing byte into register

utf8_decoding_base

type: Gas

Base cost of decoding utf8.

utf8_decoding_byte

type: Gas

Cost per bye of decoding utf8.

utf16_decoding_base

type: Gas

Base cost of decoding utf16.

utf16_decoding_byte

type: Gas

Cost per bye of decoding utf16.

sha256_base

type: Gas

Cost of getting sha256 base

sha256_byte

type: Gas

Cost of getting sha256 per byte

keccak256_base

type: Gas

Cost of getting keccak256 base

keccak256_byte

type: Gas

Cost of getting keccak256 per byte

keccak512_base

type: Gas

Cost of getting keccak512 base

keccak512_byte

type: Gas

Cost of getting keccak512 per byte

log_base

type: Gas

Cost for calling logging.

log_byte

type: Gas

Cost for logging per byte

Storage API

storage_write_base

type: Gas

Storage trie write key base cost

storage_write_key_byte

type: Gas

Storage trie write key per byte cost

storage_write_value_byte

type: Gas

Storage trie write value per byte cost

storage_write_evicted_byte

type: Gas

Storage trie write cost per byte of evicted value.

storage_read_base

type: Gas

Storage trie read key base cost

storage_read_key_byte

type: Gas

Storage trie read key per byte cost

storage_read_value_byte

type: Gas

Storage trie read value cost per byte cost

storage_remove_base

type: Gas

Remove key from trie base cost

storage_remove_key_byte

type: Gas

Remove key from trie per byte cost

storage_remove_ret_value_byte

type: Gas

Remove key from trie ret value byte cost

storage_has_key_base

type: Gas

Storage trie check for key existence cost base

storage_has_key_byte

type: Gas

Storage trie check for key existence per key byte

storage_iter_create_prefix_base

type: Gas

Create trie prefix iterator cost base

storage_iter_create_prefix_byte

type: Gas

Create trie prefix iterator cost per byte.

storage_iter_create_range_base

type: Gas

Create trie range iterator cost base

storage_iter_create_from_byte

type: Gas

Create trie range iterator cost per byte of from key.

storage_iter_create_to_byte

type: Gas

Create trie range iterator cost per byte of to key.

storage_iter_next_base

type: Gas

Trie iterator per key base cost

storage_iter_next_key_byte

type: Gas

Trie iterator next key byte cost

storage_iter_next_value_byte

type: Gas

Trie iterator next key byte cost

touching_trie_node

type: Gas

Cost per touched trie node

Promise API

promise_and_base

type: Gas

Cost for calling promise_and

promise_and_per_promise

type: Gas

Cost for calling promise_and for each promise

promise_return

type: Gas

Cost for calling promise_return

Economics

This is under heavy development

Units

NameValue
yoctoNEARsmallest undividable amount of native currency NEAR.
NEAR10**24 yoctoNEAR
blocksmallest on-chain unit of time
gasunit to measure usage of blockchain

General Parameters

NameValue
INITIAL_SUPPLY10**33 yoctoNEAR
NEAR10**24 yoctoNEAR
MIN_GAS_PRICE10**5 yoctoNEAR
REWARD_PCT_PER_YEAR0.05
BLOCK_TIME1 second
EPOCH_LENGTH43,200 blocks
EPOCHS_A_YEAR730 epochs
POKE_THRESHOLD500 blocks
INITIAL_MAX_STORAGE10 * 2**40 bytes == 10 TB
TREASURY_PCT0.1
TREASURY_ACCOUNT_IDtreasury
CONTRACT_PCT0.3
INVALID_STATE_SLASH_PCT0.05
ADJ_FEE0.001
TOTAL_SEATS100

General Variables

NameDescriptionInitial value
totalSupply[t]Total supply of NEAR at given epoch[t]INITIAL_SUPPLY
gasPrice[t]The cost of 1 unit of gas in NEAR tokens (see Transaction Fees section below)MIN_GAS_PRICE
storageAmountPerByte[t]keeping constant, INITIAL_SUPPLY / INITIAL_MAX_STORAGE~9.09 * 10**19 yoctoNEAR

Issuance

The protocol sets a ceiling for the maximum issuance of tokens, and dynamically decreases this issuance depending on the amount of total fees in the system.

NameDescription
reward[t]totalSupply[t] * ((1 - REWARD_PCT_PER_YEAR) ** (1/EPOCHS_A_YEAR) - 1)
epochFee[t]sum([(1 - DEVELOPER_PCT_PER_YEAR) * block.txFee + block.stateFee for block in epoch[t]])
issuance[t]The amount of token issued at a certain epoch[t], issuance[t] = reward[t] - epochFee[t]

Where totalSupply[t] is the total number of tokens in the system at a given time t. If epochFee[t] > reward[t] the issuance is negative, thus the totalSupply[t] decreases in given epoch.

Transaction Fees

Each transaction before inclusion must buy gas enough to cover the cost of bandwidth and execution.

Gas unifies execution and bytes of bandwidth usage of blockchain. Each WASM instruction or pre-compiled function gets assigned an amount of gas based on measurements on common-denominator computer. Same goes for weighting the used bandwidth based on general unified costs. For specific gas mapping numbers see ???.

Gas is priced dynamically in NEAR tokens. At each block t, we update gasPrice[t] = gasPrice[t - 1] * (gasUsed[t - 1] / gasLimit[t - 1] - 0.5) * ADJ_FEE.

Where gasUsed[t] = sum([sum([gas(tx) for tx in chunk]) for chunk in block[t]]). gasLimit[t] is defined as gasLimit[t] = gasLimit[t - 1] + validatorGasDiff[t - 1], where validatorGasDiff is parameter with which each chunk producer can either increase or decrease gas limit based on how long it to execute the previous chunk. validatorGasDiff[t] can be only within ±0.1% of gasLimit[t] and only if gasUsed[t - 1] > 0.9 * gasLimit[t - 1].

State Stake

Amount of NEAR on the account represents right for this account to take portion of the blockchain's overall global state. Transactions fail if account doesn't have enough balance to cover the storage required for given account.

def check_storage_cost(account):
    # Compute requiredAmount given size of the account.
    requiredAmount = sizeOf(account) * storageAmountPerByte
    return Ok() if account.amount + account.locked < requiredAmount else Error(requiredAmount)

# Check when transaction is received to verify that it is valid.
def verify_transaction(tx, signer_account):
    # ...
    # Updates signer's account with the amount it will have after executing this tx.
    update_post_amount(signer_account, tx)
    result = check_storage_cost(signer_account)
    # If enough balance OR account is been deleted by the owner.
    if not result.ok() or DeleteAccount(tx.signer_id) in tx.actions:
        assert LackBalanceForState(signer_id: tx.signer_id, amount: result.err())

# After account touched / changed, we check it still has enough balance to cover it's storage.
def on_account_change(block_height, account):
    # ... execute transaction / receipt changes ...
    # Validate post-condition and revert if it fails.
    result = check_storage_cost(sender_account)
    if not result.ok():
        assert LackBalanceForState(signer_id: tx.signer_id, amount: result.err())

Where sizeOf(account) includes size of account_id, account structure and size of all the data stored under the account.

Account can end up with not enough balance in case it gets slashed. Account will become unusable as all orginating transactions will fail (including deletion). The only way to recover it in this case is by sending extra funds from a different accounts.

Validators

NEAR validators provide their resources in exchange for a reward epochReward[t], where [t] represents the considered epoch

NameDescription
epochReward[t]= coinbaseReward[t] + epochFee[t]
coinbaseReward[t]The maximum inflation per epoch[t], as a function of REWARD_PCT_PER_YEAR / EPOCHS_A_YEAR

Validator Selection

NameDescription
proposalsThe array of all existing validators, minus the ones which were online less than ONLINE_THRESHOLD, plus new validators
INCLUSION_FEEThe arbitrary transaction fee that new validators offer to be included in the proposals, to mitigate censorship risks by existing validators
ONLINE_THRESHOLD0.9
epoch[T]The epoch when validator[v] is selected from the proposals auction array
seatPriceThe minimum stake needed to become validator in epoch[T]
stake[v]The amount in NEAR tokens staked by validator[v] during the auction at the end of epoch[T-2], minus INCLUSION_FEE
shard[v]The shard is randomly assigned to validator[v] at epoch[T-1], such that its node can download and sync with its state
numSeatsNumber of seats assigned to validator[v], calculated from stake[v]/seatPrice
validatorAssignmentsThe resulting ordered array of all proposals with a stake higher than seatPrice

validatorAssignments is then split in two groups: block/chunk producers and hidden validators.

Rewards Calculation

NameValue
epochFee[t]sum([(1 - DEVELOPER_PCT_PER_YEAR) * txFee[i] + stateFee[i] for i in epoch[t]]), where [i] represents any considered block within the epoch[t]

Total reward every epoch t is equal to:

reward[t] = totalSupply * ((1 + REWARD_PCT_PER_YEAR) ** (1 / EPOCHS_A_YEAR) - 1)

Uptime of a specific validator is computed:

pct_online[t][j] = (num_produced_blocks[t][j] / expected_produced_blocks[t][j] + num_produced_chunks[t][j] / expected_produced_chunks[t][j]) / 2
if pct_online > ONLINE_THRESHOLD:
    uptime[t][j] = (pct_online[t][j] - ONLINE_THRESHOLD) / (1 - ONLINE_THRESHOLD)
else:
    uptime[t][j] = 0

Where expected_produced_blocks and expected_produced_chunks is the number of blocks and chunks respectively that is expected to be produced by given validator j in the epoch t.

The specific validator[t][j] reward for epoch t is then proportional to the fraction of stake of this validator from total stake:

validator[t][j] = (uptime[t][j] * stake[t][j] * reward[t]) / total_stake[t]

Slashing

ChunkProofs

# Check that chunk is invalid, because the proofs in header don't match the body.
def chunk_proofs_condition(chunk):
    # TODO

# At the end of the epoch, run update validators and
# determine how much to slash validators.
def end_of_epoch_update_validators(validators):
    # ...
    for validator in validators:
        if validator.is_slashed:
            validator.stake -= INVALID_STATE_SLASH_PCT * validator.stake

ChunkState

# Check that chunk header post state root is invalid, 
# because the execution of previous chunk doesn't lead to it.
def chunk_state_condition(prev_chunk, prev_state, chunk_header):
    # TODO

# At the end of the epoch, run update validators and
# determine how much to slash validators.
def end_of_epoch(..., validators):
    # ...
    for validator in validators:
        if validator.is_slashed:
            validator.stake -= INVALID_STATE_SLASH_PCT * validator.stake

Protocol Treasury

Treasury account TREASURY_ACCOUNT_ID receives fraction of reward every epoch t:

# At the end of the epoch, update treasury
def end_of_epoch(..., reward):
    # ...
    accounts[TREASURY_ACCOUNT_ID].amount = TREASURY_PCT * reward